Write a 6-8 page essay (double-spaced, one-inch margins, 12-point font) on one of the following topics. Be sure to put the question number on your essay. Remember that your work will be evaluated on the basis of the grading rubric that may be found on-line at http://urban.hunter.cuny.edu/~apolsky/317S06GRADING.htm. Please also consult the paper guidelines on my web page (http://urban.hunter.cuny.edu/~apolsky/ papers.htm), observe the standard formatting rules listed there, and be sure to cite properly (using the Polity citation style) and fully all material taken from the texts. Due: Thursday, May 25th, at 3 PM in my mailbox in the Political Science Department office, 1724 HW. The late penalty (without a valid, documented reason for the lateness) will be one-third letter grade for each day the paper is late, beginning at 3 PM on the 25th. Thus a paper submitted on May 26th loses two-thirds of a letter grade. Papers will be available in the department office in early June with limited comments.

    1. Discuss the contribution of "bottom-up" activism by African Americans to the two reconstructions that Valelly describes and evaluate its impact upon their varying outcomes.

    2. How have civic associations shaped the character of citizenship over time in the United States?

    3. How did the American state, including the law, shape political participation and citizenship through the period of the Civil War?

    4. Discuss and assess the historical contribution of political leaders in promoting political incorporation (especially racial inclusion) and political participation in the United States.

    5. Explain how and why civic associations have been transformed over the past fifty years and assess the political consequences of this transformation.

    6. Explain and contrast the role of the courts in Valelly's two reconstructions. Be sure to illustrate your analysis with careful discussions of leading cases from each era.